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ER stresstriggered by CS in COPDescalates lipid peroxidation, activating ferroptosis pathways (61, 62)

LL-37 peptide is administered subcutaneously, typically in the abdomen, thigh or upper arm

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In the final step 4, the thioester bond linking the two exteins spontaneously rearranges to a peptide bond by a O-N or S-N acyl shift to form the spliced product ( Based on the mechanism above, we can understand how the N-terminal cleavage reaction (via acyl shift) and C-terminal cleavage reaction (via succinimide formation) are distinct, and mutations at the N- and C-terminal intein-extein junctions have been used to promote side-reactions that include cleavage at either or both junctions without extein ligation (Figure 1B) ( This review focuses on how inteins came to be used for protein purification, the modifications made to early intein designs, and the evolution of new inteins for industrial use as described in prominent intein patents filed over the last 3 decades